In general, the system is flexible, allowing the introduction of new ideas about sickness and healing practices, many of them borrowed from classical and modern medicine.
HEALERS
To implement the various folk curing practices, most social groups have established a hierarchy of healers--beginning with the individuals affected, their immediate families and friends, knowledgeable herbalists, members of the clergy, faith healers, and SHAMANS, or medicine men. Many are consulted because of their empirical knowledge of roots and herbs possessing medicinal properties. Others are considered endowed with healing gifts because of station or accidents of birth. The belief that posthumous children have such talents is widely known in the United States. In the European folk-medical tradition, seventh sons and daughters are said to possess unusual curing powers; the same applies to twins. Often spouses and children of known healers are automatically considered to have similar gifts. As in primitive medicine, many people affected by ailments that are considered minor and natural treat themselves, with the help of family members. A vast array of easily available herbal preparations known to most members of the culture is used to effect a cure. More difficult cases suspected to be of a magico-religious nature are referred to local healers who are endowed with special powers. These shamans stage a variety of ceremonies and employ many of the techniques used in preliterate social groups.
NAVAJOS
Native American folk medicine is popular in the less acculturated Indian tribes. A notable example are the Navajos still living in their homeland.
Disease is considered a disruption of harmony caused either by external agents such as lightning and winds, powerful animals and ghosts, and witchcraft, or by the breaking of taboos. Three categories of folk healers are usually consulted: first the herbalists, for symptomatic relief of minor ailments; if no improvement is observed, then the hand trembler, or diviner, is called; finally, the singer, or MEDICINE MAN, will carry out specific healing ceremonies suggested by the hand trembler's diagnosis. Ritual sweatbaths, drinking of herbs, and elaborate sandpainting ceremonies characterize Navajo folk healing.
HOT COLD THEORY
The hot-cold theory of disease ranks among the most popular systems of contemporary folk medicine in the United States. In health, the human body displays a balanced blending of hot and cold qualities. Sickness will ensue if an excess of hot or cold foodstuffs is ingested. The basic scheme was introduced into Latin America by the Spanish during the 16th century. Reinforced by native cultural values, it became firmly embedded in popular Latin healing traditions. The hot-cold scheme is applied to foods, diseases, and remedies. The terms hot and cold do not necessarily refer to the temperature of foods or remedies. Qualities are assigned on the basis of origin, color, nutritional value, physiological effects of the food or remedy, as well as therapeutical action. Among New York Puerto Ricans, for example, bananas, coconuts, and sugar cane are considered cold, whereas chocolate, garlic, alcoholic beverages, and corn meal are hot. Cold-classified illnesses such are arthritis, colds, and gastric complaints must be treated with hot foods and remedies. Their hot counterparts --constipation, diarrhea, and intestinal cramps--require treatment with cold substances.
BLACK AMERICANS
The medical folklore of black Americans contains elements derived from popular European and African beliefs, blended with religious elements belonging to Christian Fundamentalism and West Indian voodoo. The world is seen as a dangerous place, prompting individuals to constantly exert caution because of the whims of nature, frequent divine punishment, and the threat of witchcraft practiced by hostile humans. Individuals are urged to look out for themselves, be distrustful, and avoid the wrath of God. Sickness is broadly divided into "natural" and "unnatural." The former comprises bodily conditions caused by environmental forces as well as God's punishment for sin. Unnatural illness represents health problems caused by evil influences and witchcraft after the loss of divine protection; the magical intrusion of "animals" into the body and the placement of a certain hex play prominent roles in the causation of disease.
MEXICAN AMERICANS
Folk medicine is still popular among large groups of Mexican-Americans in New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, California, and especially in West Texas. Their healing system, based on pre-Columbian indigenous lore, reflects a degree of isolation and unwillingness to assimilate Anglo-Saxon culture. Moreover, the inability of scientific medicine to offer relief for various categories of folk illness further enhances the usefulness of these practices. Five types of folk illness are most prominent: mal de ojo (evil eye), empacho (gastro-intestinal blockage due to excessive food intake), susto (magically induced fright), caida de la mollera (fallen fontanel, or opening in or between bones), and mal puesto (sorcery). Prominent among Mexican-American folk healers is the curandero, a type of shaman who uses white magic and herbs to effect cures. In the cosmic struggle between good and evil, the curandero, using God-given powers, wards against harmful spells and hexes. As in other folk systems, faith in the curandero's abilities is the essence of the healer's continued success.
FOLK MEDICINE TODAY
Folk medical systems, especially those ftinctionffig in a pluralistic society comprising several distinct ethnic groups (as in the United States), govern domestic healing activities to a great extent. Recently, the increasing complexity, technicality, and cost of modem medicine have spurred renewed attempts at self-medication and the use of herbal preparations, thus reviving folk medical practices.
A number of folk remedies used *in the past are now manufactured as pharmaceutical preparations prescribed by physicians. For example, rauwolfia is an extract of the snakeroot plant, which was used for centuries in the Far East for its calming effect. It is now prescribed by physicians to lower blood pressure. Reserpine, a derivative of rauwolfia, has been used by psychiatrists 'in treating severe mental disorders. Foxglove was first brewed by Indians to treat dropsy, fluid in the legs caused by heart problems. This practice occurred for hundreds of years before it was discovered that foxglove contributed the active ingredients now known as digitalis. Today digitalis is commonly used to stimulate weakened hearts.
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